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COMMUNICATION STYLES

IN THIS ISSUE

All four articles in this issue of Language and Intercultural Training deal with different aspects of the same question - is English, as the global language of business, as effective as it could be? If it is, what are the characteristics that enable it to be so? If it is not, what are the problems that prevent it being so and how can its effectiveness be improved?

Communication between non-native speakers of English
Many non-native speakers of English feel more comfortable and confident when communicating with each other than with native speakers of English. The arguments usually put forward for this are: that when English is a second language it is linguistically and culturally neutral; that all parties are making the same effort and have the same restrictions in being able to express themselves fluently; that this restriction means the English used is therefore simpler and less sophisticated than that used by native speakers, and easier to understand; and that the parties are less judgemental of each others "errors".

The concept that non-native speakers of English use a simplified and easier to understand version of the language is developed in the article by Catherine Bartlett and Christine Johnson. Based on observations and recordings in their workplace they ask the question whether what they call International Business English (IBE) is a pidgin or creole, since it shares certain characteristics with both these simplified forms of communication. Their conclusion is that it is neither, but is its own variant, with common underlying linguistic universals. They argue that this new variant of IBE is remarkably consistent across different mother tongue speakers, and enables them to communicate successfully, if not always elegantly, with each other. Moreover, they argue that native speakers of English should accept IBE as a valid variant of English rather than a sub-standard form, and conclude with the thought that native speakers of English might even consider using a modified form of English that is closer in form to this variant than to standard English.

Modified English as a Communication Tool
The idea of native speakers of English using a modified and simplified version of English for international communication is not new. In the 1930s West advanced the concept of Basic English with a limited vocabulary. In the 1970s and early 1980s several multinational corporations - Kodak, Caterpillar, Ericsson - invested considerable sums to develop a simplified and unambiguous form of written English for technical purposes, in which their technical manuals should be written. More recently still there have been projects to produce clear and unambiguous forms of spoken English in areas where poor communication can result in disaster - Seaspeak for navigation at sea, and Railspeak for use on Channel Tunnel trains. All these projects have produced manuals for users, with a set of rules of right and wrong usage. The problem, as the multinational corporations found, is in training users to operate consistently within these artificially created rules.

The article by Adrian Pilbeam examines those characteristics of spoken English which cause problems for all but the most proficient of non-native speakers of English. The problem areas he identifies include speed of speech, use of complex sentences and sophisticated vocabulary, use of idioms and colloquial expressions, a lack of rephrasing and an avoidance of clarification strategies. He argues that the linguistic superiority of native speakers of English, whether used consciously or unconsciously, can cause, at best, misunderstandings and, at worst, resentment by the other party, who are forced to play by the linguistic and implied cultural rules of the more powerful party. He proposes areas of training for native speakers of English which will first create awareness of the problem and then develop skills to use a filtered or modified form of English, though not exactly the same variant as the IBE identified by Bartlett and Johnson.

Politeness Strategies
It is not only vocabulary and sentence structure which can cause communication problems when English is a common language. The influence of the users' culture is never absent, and particularly affects the use of negative or positive politeness strategies, as exemplifications of negative or positive face. Adrian Pilbeam and Henri de Jongst both examine this aspect of communication. Pilbeam gives other examples of communication strategies used by British native speakers which can cause communication problems - use of humour to create a more relaxed atmosphere, and use of indirectness of language to avoid commitment, confrontation or affront. De Jongst defines these as positive and negative politeness strategies respectively, and examines German and Dutch behaviour in the use of these strategies and how they inevitably remain when those nationals speak English, even if the proficiency of the speaker is high. The resulting misunderstandings and false impressions formed when the opposite politeness strategy is expected by one party is typical of intercultural communication problems.

Problems in Virtual Communication
If communication problems due to language and culture exist to such an extent in face to face encounters, what is the impact of the technology with which increasing numbers of people are communicating at a distance? George Simons' article explores this very recent issue in depth. Part of his argument is that virtual communication creates its own culture, which may be at variance with the culture of some users, particularly those from more collective, hierarchical, high context and polychronic cultures. While defining these potential intercultural problem areas in detail, Simons also gives many suggestions for initial and continuous training to reduce the impact and maximise the advantages of virtual communication for newcomers, whom he calls "virtual expatriates" and "electronic immigrants".

Something not stated explicitly by Simons is that virtual communication is very much a North American creation that carries with it its own cultural baggage, and then defines the rules by which others have to operate. He touches on this when he writes of the power imbalance between native and non-native speakers of English using English as the common language of virtual communication, and like the other contributors to this issue he recommends the use of a modified form of international English in these circumstances.

What all the articles demonstrate, from their different standpoints, is that a mutually understandable common language, be it English or Esperanto, is only part of the answer to effective communication. What is also necessary is an awareness of the role that culture plays in the communication process, and the need to link aspects of language training with related intercultural training.

Language and Intercultural Training
Volume 16 No. 2

APPROACHES TO TRAINING

IN THIS ISSUE

There are no magic solutions to learning a foreign language or developing intercultural skills, despite the many claims that often start with the words "this well proven method guarantees success in only X weeks..."

Approaches not methods
How does a method differ from an approach? Many proclaimed methods seem to suggest that theirs is the only or best way to do something. The word method carries with it the idea of rigidity, inflexibility - even infallibility. An approach, on the other hand suggests a clear direction but with flexibility, tailoring the training to the demands and needs of the customer.

The articles in this issue of Language and Intercultural Training all deal with different approaches to language and intercultural training. However, none of the writers argues that the ideas they put forward are the best and only way.

Workplace language training
Most language training for companies takes the form of face-to-face courses, sometimes supported by self-access sessions in a language laboratory or multimedia centre, and usually taking place in a dedicated training room.

But for certain companies the organisation of training at fixed times and in fixed locations does not fit in with their way of working, especially where many employees are involved in supervising production processes or carrying out laboratory tests. This is the case at the Finnish paper mill in Kajaani described in Richard Booth's article. In this company a new approach to language training, which they call 'workplace training', has been developed over a number of years. The workplace language trainers at UPM-Kymmene's Kajaani mill work with a relatively small number of employees at any one time, and do so in a very flexible way. The flexibility comes not only in the timing and duration of the training but also in its location, which is sometimes in the laboratory or control room where the people work.

The workplace training programme at Kajaani is probably the ultimate example of flexibility. There is no fixed programme and no course manual or standard training materials. The trainers are as much facilitators or consultants as they are trainers. They work closely with their 'students' to help them solve their language problems for very specific purposes, and in doing so give added value to the training process. This approach will not work for every organisation, but in the case of the Kajaani mill it meets the customer's needs exactly.

Adapting to market demands
Meeting the demands of the customer is also the theme of Jimmy Niblock's article, which looks at intercultural training for Japanese companies. In Japan, two major changes in the economy - globalisation of larger companies and a recessionary climate - have had a major influence on training. Large scale training for the long term has been replaced by an emphasis on rapid solutions to specific needs. This has created a challenge for training providers to alter their approach without compromising the quality and underlying methodology of their training.

The article describes a number of ways to adapt the design and delivery of intercultural courses to take account of these changes, concluding that responding to the challenge of new market demands can be a positive influence on intercultural course design, forcing trainers to re-examine some assumptions and look for creative solutions.

Replacing the trainer
One solution to the problem of reduced budgets and lack of time for training is to set up a self-access learning centre. Indeed, according to Nina O'Driscoll, self-access centres and computer-based multimedia learning have become the training mantra for the late 90s. The Oxford English Dictionary, both print and interactive versions, tells us that a mantra is 'a sacred text'. The implication is that something sacred must be worshipped with devotion and total acceptance, and herein lies the problem for multimedia training applications. They are in danger of being regarded as 'magic solutions'.

Multimedia - a solution?
In her article, Nina O'Driscoll looks objectively at the benefits and disadvantages of using multimedia, both CD-ROM and internet. She sees many benefits in both, especially in terms of the volume of information they contain, the individual flexibility with which they can be used and, in the case of the internet, the possibility for genuine two way communication, if only in the form of exchanging text messages on screen.

At the same time she considers some of the drawbacks - a rather behaviourist view of learning that is implicit in the way most materials are structured; fixed and soon out-dated content in the case of CD-ROMs; and the impossibility of really developing skills for face-to-face communication. She concludes that, in most cases, an element of face-to-face training is still necessary to complement the useful input and preparation gained from multimedia.

Multimedia in intercultural training
Nina O'Driscoll's main message is that multimedia should be used for what it is good at, and not adopted as a solution to all training needs, no matter how attractive it might seem. Multimedia is good at storing large amounts of information in the form of text, images and sound. It is precisely this information role of multimedia that Chris Franz highlights at the beginning of his article. He argues that multimedia lends itself well to intercultural orientation or briefing, the preparation phase for people about to live and work abroad.

But effective intercultural training should go beyond briefing; it should also include awareness-raising and the development of skills. This kind of intercultural training is often done through experiential sessions using role-plays and simulations, where multimedia has its limitations. However, Chris Franz argues for a role for multimedia here too, especially in 'critical-incidents' or short case studies. He concludes with the idea that 'virtual cultures' and virtual reality could in the future be the basis for intercultural simulations.

Language and Intercultural Training
Volume 16 No 3

TRAINING IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT

IN THIS ISSUE

Managing change
How well language and intercultural training are dealing with the changing environment that surrounds them is the subject covered by the four articles in this issue of LIT. The first article, by John Wilson, lays the foundation by investigating the nature of change, and the driving and restraining forces which encourage or discourage successful change in organisations. He emphasises the need for training to be pro-active, anticipating future needs, rather than reactive, when it is sometimes too late to have an effect or when training budgets are no longer as available as in better times. He warns against complacency, being content with the status quo because it is comfortable, and against accepting what he calls expected outcomes of training rather than desired outcomes. He concludes by recommending that language trainers must apply the process of change to themselves so that the services they offer their internal or external customers at least keep pace with those customers' demands.

Towards efficiency in language training
Barbara Mattison's article provides a case study of recent trends in language training and the changing role of the language training provider. Her focus is France, and in particular the Paris region, which is certainly the biggest language training market in Europe, and also one of the most dynamic in its response to changes in the training environment. Mattison describes the pressures on language training providers in France in recent years, in particular the increased focus on price and productivity, common to all sectors of business in the 1990s. The way to deal with this has been to increase efficiency, by using more sophisticated pedagogical tools, by emphasing the results of what Mattison calls pedagogical productivity, and by employing a judicious mix of different face-to-face training approaches combined with the resources offered by multimedia technology.

At the same time, purchasers of training have become increasingly demanding in terms of what they require, and often equally discerning in their evaluation of what they are offered. The language trainer supplier is now required not only to design and run efficient courses, but also to take on a large part of the organisation and administration of the company's language training programme, as companies look to outsource more and more of their language training activity. In fact those training suppliers that have come to the fore in recent years are the ones that can offer a partnership in training, including a full range of consulting services to help set up and evaluate training programmes. And more often than not the client is tending to separate the two services, so that the company providing consulting services does not sit in judgement on the training services it provides - "on ne peut pas être juge et partie" is the French phrase. ("You cannot be both judge and jury").

Dealing with globalisation
Good communication through a common language is one essential requirement for operating efficiently internationally. But, for a global company like British Airways, more is needed. Paula Antonio's article puts it in the form of a question - "How can we call ourselves a global airline if we cannot display a high level of cultural awareness?" This is the challenge of the company with global aspirations today. The responses are varied. Many companies are content with briefings for those going to live and work abroad as expatriates. But this covers only a small number of people, and leaves out that larger group who, working from their home base, operate in international teams on a weekly and even daily basis. Much of this activity involves meetings and team work sessions, with the associated communication and intercultural skills to be successful when working with people who have a different mindset from your own.

The article describes how, at British Airways, the Customer Services Training team have felt the need to go beyond a study of behaviour to understand the thought processes that lie behind, and therefore the reasons for different behaviour by people from different cultures. Intercultural training that develops this awareness and understanding within a training course must then go on to provide tools and skills to be used in real situations. She concludes by mentioning what is an often overlooked aspect of intercultural training for a global organisation such as British Airways. It is that the audience for such training is itself made up of a very diverse population, which in turn calls for intercultural sensitivity and skills in the design and delivery of the training itself. Only "when we can communicate, work and deliver training in an international setting …can we become a truly global airline."

Intercultural training in the corporate world
The corporate language training field is much older and therefore more developed than the newer field if intercultural training. Consequently, there is a much bigger gap in the latter between suppliers of training, who often come from an academic or humanities background, and the corporate purchasers of such training, with their varied motivations for buying the services offered. This mismatch can even produce, as described in Bob Day's and Peter Petzal's article, a culture shock and culture gap of its own, as the two parties seek and often fail to understand and communicate with each other.

The article traces in detail some of the decision making processes that may influence a company's decision to purchase intercultural training services, and it cautions potential providers to "practise what they preach…..open their minds, listen, build the right relationships, and take time" in order to work successfully with people in the corporate management development field.

Click here for LIT Journal 1999

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